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Claims, Evidence, and Warrants, Oh My!

12/1/2020

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Picture of Toulmin Model
If you’re looking for a great way to structure persuasive arguments, look no further than the Toulmin Model of Argumentation. This model was created by the philosopher Stephen Toulmin as a way to analyze people’s arguments.  He believed that the best arguments fit into the same structure and were based on how well the argument was justified. If an argument was correctly justified, it would stand up to scrutiny by the audience. Since the model was developed, people have found it is also incredibly effective when they are developing their arguments. You can use this model to help structure a persuasive essay or a persuasive speech.
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According to Toulmin, all successful arguments contain a claim, a warrant, and grounds. Arguments may also contain qualifiers, backing, and rebuttals. Let’s look at each of those terms a little more closely. 

The first set of three terms are the essential components of practical arguments.


A claim is your main point. It is an assertion that you are making in an argument. The claim cannot stand on its own, so it must be developed to be successful. In an essay or speech, this will likely be your thesis or conclusion.

Grounds are the supporting facts for your argument. These are ideas that have been shown to be true. You can use facts like statistics or scientific data, or you can use logic and reasoning. Grounds must be accepted as or proven true.
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A warrant is a link between the claim and the grounds. A warrant may be implied and not directly stated if it is common knowledge. If you are unsure if the audience has this common knowledge, it is important that you state the warrant explicitly. 

The second set of three terms are not always required (but can be extremely helpful to ensure that your argument is solid).
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Qualifiers are words that state how certain you are that your assertion is true. Words like “absolutely” and “definitely” should be saved for claims that are incredibly solid. Words like “possibly” or “probably” should be used if there is some wiggle room in your claim. If you make a claim like “all swans are white” and someone can find at least one black swan, your argument will disintegrate. So use terms like, “most swans are white” or “all swans are probably white” so you don’t have to make sure your argument is watertight. If you don’t include a qualifier, people generally assume you mean all, so if you say “swans are white” people will assume you mean “all swans are white.”

Backing is support for the link established by your warrant. If your warrant is implicit, you may need to use backing to ensure the audience makes the connection. You can often use specific examples and analogies as backing.
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Rebuttals recognize restrictions in your argument. These can be a pre-emptive counterargument to any opposing argument to your claim, and shows that you know what you are talking about. 

So what do these look like in an actual argument?


Claim: You should wear a mask…
Qualifier: …whenever you are in public.
Grounds: According to the CDC, wearing masks dramatically helps reduce the spread of Coronavirus. The Coronavirus causes the disease known as COVID-19.
Warrant (Explicit): COVID-19 kills people. You care about people and do not want to kill them.
Warrant (Implicit): You are a good person. You are not a plague rat.
Backing (If you are a subject matter expert): I have a degree in Virology, and I have studied coronaviruses. 

OR
Backing (If you are not an expert): I have researched and verified that this information is true with experts in public health.
Rebuttal: Some people say that masks are ineffective. However, the efficacy of masks has been proven in dozens of peer reviewed studies.

Put those altogether and you have a single main point for an essay or a speech. Repeat that for each claim that you make, and you are on your way to having a rock-solid argument.

The Toulmin Model of Argumentation is an excellent tool to help create an argument that will persuade an audience. You can use it to structure your argument before writing it, or you can use it after writing to analyze your argument and strengthen it

Picture of O.J. Duncan


  O.J. Duncan
  Speaker's Center Volunteer

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